China

The three branches

Party — Communist Party of China

Its leading role is stated in Article 1 of the Constitution as amended in 2018.

Head of state — President

Term limits removed in 2018; the office is held together with the Party general secretaryship.

Executive — State Council, led by the Premier

The central people's government; issues administrative regulations.

Legislative — National People's Congress

Nominally supreme, about 2,980 delegates, meets for roughly two weeks a year; its Standing Committee legislates between sessions.

Supervisory — National Supervisory Commission

Created in 2018, merged with the Party's discipline inspection apparatus; investigates public officials.

How legislation is made

The NPC meets in plenary once a year, so the Standing Committee enacts most legislation. A bill is normally read three times under the Legislation Law, with drafts published for public comment — the Civil Code drafts drew over a million submissions. The NPCSC also has power to interpret laws, which it exercises as a substantive lawmaking tool. There is no presidential veto: the President promulgates what the NPC or its Standing Committee has passed.

Enforcement institutions

Ministry of Public Security

Directs the police; also administers household registration (hukou) and exit-entry.

Supreme People's Procuratorate

Prosecutes, and supervises the legality of court and police activity — a power with no common-law equivalent.

National Supervisory Commission

Investigates officials for corruption and dereliction using the liuzhi detention power.

Ministry of Justice

Administers prisons, the lawyer licensing regime and public legal services.

State Administration for Market Regulation

Competition, consumer protection and corporate registration.