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India

Republic of India

Common law with personal-law pluralismFederal parliamentary republicReviewed· 2026-06-02
Capital
New Delhi
Population
1,441,000,000
Languages
Hindi, English
Currency
INR
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India · Rights

Rights in India

What the atlas records on rights in India, checked against the primary sources cited below.

Rights

Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023, phased into force

Reviewed· 2026-08-03

The DPDP Act replaces the earlier IT Rules framework with a consent-centred regime supervised by a Data Protection Board. Rules bringing provisions into force are being notified in stages.

Key rules

  • Consent notices must be available in English and the languages of the Eighth Schedule.
  • Significant data fiduciaries face additional audit and DPO obligations.
  • Transfers are permitted except to countries the government restricts by notification.

Governing law

  • Digital Personal Data Protection Act 2023
  • Information Technology Act 2000

Penalties and consequences

  • Up to ₹250 crore per breach of security safeguards

In practice

Because commencement is phased, the operative question for any given obligation is whether its rule has actually been notified yet.

Sources

Rights

The world's longest written constitution with a basic structure doctrine

Reviewed· 2026-08-03

The 1950 Constitution guarantees fundamental rights enforceable directly in the Supreme Court under Article 32. Kesavananda Bharati (1973) held that amendments cannot destroy the constitution's basic structure.

Key rules

  • Article 32 gives a direct right to move the Supreme Court for enforcement of fundamental rights.
  • Article 21's right to life has been read to include privacy, health and a clean environment.
  • Public interest litigation permits relaxed standing rules.

Governing law

  • Constitution of India (1950)106 amendments

In practice

PIL has made the Supreme Court an unusually active policy forum, and writ petitions are often the fastest route to a remedy against public bodies.

Sources

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